Departments & Programs
English
Course Descriptions
- ENG–J 101 Introduction to College Composition (2 cr.) P: Consent of department. For Groups students only. An introduction to the writing process. J101 can lead directly to freshman-level writing courses or, at discretion of instructor, to J102. For Groups students only.
- ENG–J 102 Introduction to College Composition (3 cr.) P: Consent of department. For Groups students only. A further introduction to the writing process; continuation of J101. For Groups students only.
- ENG–W 101 Critical Literacy (2 cr.) Offers instruction and practice in the kinds of critical reading strategies students will be expected to practice in college, with an emphasis on the connection between academic reading and writing skills.
- ENG–X 101 Pre-Composition (3 cr.) An introduction to the writing process.
- ENG–W 130 Principles of Composition (3 cr.) For students who need a semester of writing instruction before taking W131. Practice in writing papers for a variety of purposes and audiences. Attention to sentence and paragraph structure. No credit toward any degree on the IU Bloomington campus. W130 is not an in-class course on the Bloomington campus, but is available for transfer credit only.
- ENG–W 131 Elementary Composition (3 cr.) CASE EC Offers instruction and practice in the reading, writing, and critical thinking skills required in college. Emphasis is on written assignments that require synthesis, analysis, and argument based on sources.
- ENG–W 143 Interdisciplinary Study of Expository Writing (1 cr.) The study of writing in conjunction with a discipline outside English language and literature. Credit for this course will be available to students who enroll in special sections of non-English introductory courses that include a writing component. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–W 170 Introduction to Argumentative Writing: Projects in Reading and Writing (3 cr.) CASE EC An alternative to W131, this freshman composition course offers a challenging sequence of projects in reading and writing. Topics and approaches vary by section; the focus, however, is on projects that encourage sustained inquiry into complex problems or significant issues. Credit given for only one of W170 or W131.
- ENG–W 202 English Grammar Review (1 cr.) This 1 credit, eight-week course provides a basic understanding of grammatical terms and principles sufficient to enable students to edit their own prose with confidence. Despite the course title, no prior knowledge of grammar assumed or required. No authorization is required for this course. Does not count in the major or minor.
- ENG–W 231 Professional Writing Skills (3 cr.) P: Completion of the English composition requirement. Designed to develop research and writing skills requisite for most academic and professional activities. Emphasis on methods of research, organization, and writing techniques useful in preparing reviews, critical bibliographies, research and technical reports, proposals, and papers.
- ENG–W 240 Community Service Writing (3 cr.) P: Completion of the English composition requirement. Integrates service with learning to develop research and writing skills requisite for most academic and professional activities. Students volunteer at a community service agency, write an assignment for public use by the agency, and perform course work culminating in a research paper on a related social issue.
- ENG–W 270 Argumentative Writing (3 cr.) P: Completion of the English composition requirement. Offers instruction and practice in writing argumentative essays about complicated and controversial issues. Focuses on strategies for identifying issues, assessing claims, locating evidence, deciding on a position, and writing papers with clear assertions and convincing arguments.
- ENG–W 280 Literary Editing and Publishing (3 cr.) P: Completion of the English composition requirement. Principles of editing and publishing literary writing. Kinds of journals, varieties of formats (including print and e-zine), introduction to editing and production processes. Possible focus on genre publishing (fiction, poetry, non-fiction prose), grant writing, Web publishing, etc. May not be repeated for credit.
- ENG–W 321 Advanced Technical Writing (3 cr.) P: W231 or permission of the instructor. Offers instruction in preparing technical proposals and reports, with an introduction to the use of graphics.
- ENG–W 350 Advanced Expository Writing (3 cr.) P: Completion of the English composition requirement. Advanced writing course focuses on the interconnected activities of writing and reading, especially the kinds of responding, analyzing, and evaluating that characterize work in many fields in the university. Topics vary from semester to semester.
- ENG–W 103 Introductory Creative Writing (3 cr.) CASE A&H Introduction to the art of creative writing. Short assignments, independent work, and classroom discussion of the fundamentals of writing fiction, poetry, and drama. Does not satisfy English composition requirement.
- ENG–W 203 Creative Writing (3 cr.) P: English major or W103 or permission of the director, Creative Writing Program. Exploratory course in the writing of poetry and/or fiction. May be repeated with a different topic for a maximum of 6 credit hours. Does not satisfy the English composition requirement. May be repeated with a different topic for a maximum of 6 credit hours.
- ENG–W 301 Writing Fiction (3 cr.) P: Submission of acceptable manuscript to instructor in advance of registration. R: W103 or W203. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–W 303 Writing Poetry (3 cr.) P: Submission of acceptable manuscript to instructor in advance of registration. R: W103 or W203. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–W 311 Writing Creative Nonfiction (3 cr.) P: Submission of acceptable manuscript to instructor in advance of registration. R: W103 or W203. Writing workshop in such modes as personal essay, autobiography, and documentary. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–W 381 The Craft of Fiction (3 cr.) P: W203 or W301 or W311 or permission of the instructor. Designed primarily for the creative writing student: the study and practice of the techniques used in the writing of fiction, including point of view, narrative distance, plot, characterization, setting, and tone.
- ENG–W 383 The Craft of Poetry (3 cr.) P: W203, W303, or permission of the instructor. Designed primarily for the creative writing student. The study and practice of the techniques used in the writing of poetry, including meter and other rhythmic structures more commonly relied on in nonmetrical or free verse, such as rhyme, alliteration, and stanza structures.
- ENG–W 401 Advanced Fiction Writing (3 cr.) P: Submission of acceptable manuscript to instructor in advance of registration. R: W301. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–W 403 Advanced Poetry Writing (3 cr.) P: Submission of acceptable manuscript to instructor in advance of registration. R: W303. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–W 410 Indiana Writing Workshop (2 cr.) P: Acceptance to the Indiana Writers’ Conference. Intensive training in various forms of writing. May be counted as part of the major. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–W 413 Advanced Creative Nonfiction Writing (3 cr.) P: ENG-W311 or permission of instructor, plus submission of an acceptable manuscript to instructor in advance of registration. Writing workshop in such modes as personal essay, autobiography, and documentary. May be repeated for a maximum of 6 credit hours.
- ENG–G 205 Introduction to the English Language (3 cr.) Acquaints students with contemporary studies of the nature of language in general and of the English language in particular. I Sem.
- ENG–G 208 World Englishes (3 cr.) CASE GCC An introduction to varieties of English spoken around the world, including those of Africa, Asia, Australasia, North America, and the British Isles, in which students explore English-speaking cultures, not in isolation, but in relation to one another, through their common language.
- ENG–G 302 Structure of Modern English (3 cr.) Focuses on linguistic analysis of present-day spoken and written English, with attention to its phonemic, morphemic, and syntactical systems and its system of expressive features. II Sem.
- ENG–G 405 Studies in English Language (3 cr.) Topics vary from semester to semester.
- ENG–E 301 Literatures in English to 1600 (3 cr.) CASE A&H The historical study of literature in English for the period 450 to 1600.
- ENG–E 302 Literatures in English, 1600–1800 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Representative study of British and American literature of the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries in the context of trans-Atlantic cultural developments.
- ENG–E 303 Literatures in English, 1800–1900 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Representative study of nineteenth-century British and American literature in the context of trans-Atlantic cultural developments.
- ENG–E 304 Literatures in English, 1900–Present (3 cr.) CASE A&H Representative study of twentieth-century literatures in English. In addition to Britain and North America, cultural locations may include the Indian subcontinent, Australasia, Anglophone Africa, the Caribbean, etc. Focuses on themes associated with modernity and cross-cultural contacts.
- ENG–L 111 Discovering Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Introduces students both to various forms of literary expression and different modes of literary study and appreciation.
- ENG–L 112 Experiencing World Cultures through Literatures in English (3 cr.) CASE A&H Investigates a diversity of world cultures and examines various literary representations (written in English) of their imaginative, emotional, and moral experiences.
- ENG–L 198 Freshman Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Basic survey of literary masterpieces, open only to students who have received advanced placement in literature.
- ENG–L 202 Literary Interpretation (3 cr.) CASE A&H P: Completion of the English composition requirement. Develops critical skills essential to participation in the interpretive process. Through class discussion and focused writing assignments, introduces the premises and motives of literary analysis and critical methods associated with historical, generic, and/or cultural concerns. May be repeated once for credit by special arrangement with the Department of English.
- ENG–L 203 Introduction to Drama (3 cr.) CASE A&H Acquaints students with characteristics of drama as a type of literature through the study of representative significant plays. Readings will include plays from several ages and countries.
- ENG–L 204 Introduction to Fiction (3 cr.) CASE A&H Representative works of fiction; structural techniques in the novel. Novels and short stories from several ages and countries.
- ENG–L 205 Introduction to Poetry (3 cr.) CASE A&H Kinds, conventions, and elements of poetry in a selection of poems from several historical periods.
- ENG–L 206 Introduction to Prose (Excluding Fiction) (3 cr.) CASE A&H Varieties of nonfictional prose, such as autobiography, biography, and the essay. Representative works from several periods and countries.
- ENG–L 207 Women and Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Issues and approaches to the critical study of women writers and their treatment in British and American literature.
- ENG–L 208 Topics in English and American Literature and Culture (3 cr.) CASE A&H Selected works of English or American literature in relation to a single cultural problem or theme. Topics will vary from semester to semester. May be repeated once for credit.
- ENG–L 210 Studies in Popular Literature and Mass Media (3 cr.) CASE A&H Popular literary modes in England and America, such as detective, western, fantasy; history and theories of “mass” or “popular” culture; uses of literacy. Literary analysis of particular mass media forms, including television drama. Topic varies.
- ENG–L 213–L 214 Literary Masterpieces I–II (3–3 cr.) CASE A&H Literary masterpieces from Homer to the present. Aims at thoughtful, intensive reading; appreciation of aesthetic values; enjoyment of reading.
- ENG–L 220 Introduction to Shakespeare (3 cr.) CASE A&H Rapid reading of at least a dozen of Shakespeare’s major plays and poems. May not be taken concurrently with L313 or L314.
- ENG–L 223 Introduction to Ethnic American Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Introduces students to a range of ethnic American literature, featuring works in varied combinations by African American, Native American, Asian American, Chicano/a or Latino/a American, Jewish American, Italian American, Irish American, Arab American, and/or other ethnic American authors.
- ENG–L 224 Introduction to World Literatures in English (3 cr.) CASE A&H Comparing and analyzing works originating in at least two continents, this course introduces students to the complexity of human experience and diversity of global English as represented in literary works from various periods and world cultures.
- ENG–L 230 Introduction to Science Fiction (3 cr.) CASE A&H Study of the kinds, conventions, and theories of science fiction. Course may include both literature (predominantly British and American) and film.
- ENG–L 240 Literature and Public Life (3 cr.) CASE A&H Study of literary works that feature situations, issues, and problems of values or ethics in public life as seen from a variety of viewpoints. Discussion and writing will be directed to the works themselves and to the questions they raise for contemporary life.
- ENG–L 241 American Jewish Writers (3 cr.) CASE A&H, CASE DUS Introduces the works of selected American Jewish writers such as Saul Bellow, Bernard Malamud, Cynthia Ozick, and Philip Roth.
- ENG–L 249 Representations of Gender and Sexuality (3 cr.) CASE A&H Study of literary and cultural presentations of gender and sexuality that traces their historical evolution, illuminates issues and problems, or examines the conventions of their depictions.
- ENG–L 295 American Film Culture (3 cr.) CASE A&H Film in relation to American culture and society. Topic varies. Works of literature may be used for comparison, but the main emphasis is on film as a narrative medium and as an important element in American culture.
- ENG–L 305 Chaucer (3 cr.) CASE A&H Chaucer’s work, with special emphasis on The Canterbury Tales.
- ENG–L 306 Middle English Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Selected works such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, The Pearl, mystery and morality plays, and religious lyrics, read in Middle English.
- ENG–L 307 Medieval and Tudor Drama (3 cr.) CASE A&H Drama from its beginnings in Medieval England through contemporaries of the early Shakespeare.
- ENG–L 308 Elizabethan and Seventeenth-Century Drama (3 cr.) CASE A&H English drama from Shakespeare’s time to the closing of the theaters in 1642 and beyond.
- ENG–L 309 Elizabethan Poetry (3 cr.) CASE A&H Major Elizabethan poets, with special attention to Spenser.
- ENG–L 313 Early Plays of Shakespeare (3 cr.) CASE A&H Close reading of at least seven early plays of Shakespeare. May not be taken concurrently with L220.
- ENG–L 314 Late Plays of Shakespeare (3 cr.) CASE A&H Close reading of at least seven later plays of Shakespeare. May not be taken concurrently with L220.
- ENG–L 317 English Poetry of the Early Seventeenth Century (3 cr.) CASE A&H Major poets in England, 1600–1660.
- ENG–L 318 Milton (3 cr.) CASE A&H Poetry and prose of John Milton, with special attention to Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes.
- ENG–L 320 Restoration and Early Eighteenth-Century Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Representative literary works from 1660 to the mid-eighteenth century, studied within their social context.
- ENG–L 327 Later Eighteenth-Century Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Representative literary works from the mid-eighteenth century to 1800, studied within their social context.
- ENG–L 328 Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Drama (3 cr.) CASE A&H Development of English Drama from Puritan closing of playhouses into the nineteenth century.
- ENG–L 332 Romantic Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H British literature and culture in the age of Romanticism and the revolutionary era (ca. 1780–1830). Poetry, fiction, drama, and nonfiction writings from major and minor authors, such as Austen, Blake, Byron, Coleridge, Keats, Scott, the Shelleys, Wollstonecraft, and the Wordsworths.
- ENG–L 335 Victorian Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Major poetry and prose, 1830–1900, studied against the social and intellectual background of period.
- ENG–L 345 Twentieth-Century British Poetry (3 cr.) CASE A&H Modern poets, particularly Yeats, Eliot, Auden; some later poets may be included.
- ENG–L 346 Twentieth-Century British Fiction (3 cr.) CASE A&H Modern fiction, its techniques and experiments, particularly Joyce, Lawrence, and Woolf; some later novelists may be included.
- ENG–L 347 British Fiction to 1800 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Forms, techniques, and theories of fiction as exemplified by such writers as Defoe, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne.
- ENG–L 348 Nineteenth-Century British Fiction (3 cr.) CASE A&H Forms, techniques, and theories of fiction as exemplified by such writers as Scott, Dickens, Eliot, and Hardy.
- ENG–L 350 Early American Writing and Culture to 1800 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Examines a range of literary and cultural communications from the period of exploration and colonization of the Americas through the Revolutionary era. Special attention paid to the interactions between rhetoric and history, and to religious, scientific, political, racial, and literary discourses.
- ENG–L 351 American Literature 1800–1865 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Studies a range of texts from the formative period of the republic to the end of the Civil War. Special attention paid to the shifting definitions and constructions of U.S. American national and cultural identity, as affected by issues of race, environment, transatlantic exchanges, scientific discourse, and the emergence of women writers.
- ENG–L 352 American Literature 1865–1914 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Surveys American literature through the development of realism, regionalism, naturalism, and the beginnings of modernism. Considers literature’s relation to social and cultural phenomena of this era, such as urbanization, industrialization, immigration, racial tensions, labor strife, changing gender roles, and the spread of mass media and consumer culture.
- ENG–L 354 American Literature since 1914 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Provides an understanding of the pivotal literary innovations and cultural changes during this period. Literary movements such as naturalism, realism, and modernism may be the subject of focus, as might changes in race and gender relations, labor politics, immigration policies, regionalism, and the increasing shift from agricultural to urban economics.
- ENG–L 355 American Fiction to 1900 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Surveys a range of literary fiction in nineteenth-century America, examining a variety of forms including the novel, sketch, short story, as well as modes (Gothic, romance, sentimental, adventure). Attention will be paid to the historical, cultural, and political contexts in which canonical and lesser-known authors wrote.
- ENG–L 356 American Poetry to 1900 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Includes the work of Bradstreet, Taylor, the fireside poets, Poe, Emerson, Whitman, Dickinson, and Crane.
- ENG–L 357 Twentieth-Century American Poetry (3 cr.) CASE A&H Examines the general trends and important contributions found in the work of major and minor American poets.
- ENG–L 358 American Literature, 1914–1960 (3 cr.) CASE A&H Surveys literary expressions centered mainly in the first half of the twentieth century. Attention may be given to such literary movements as modernism and the Beats, as well as literature written by women and various ethnic populations.
- ENG–L 359 American Literature, 1960–Present (3 cr.) CASE A&H Examines a range of literary forms and developments after the start of the Vietnam War. Special attention may be given to postmodernism, women’s literature, ethnic literature, 1960s protest literature, and radical revisions of genres, forms and narrative strategies in the age of computerization.
- ENG–L 360 American Prose (Excluding Fiction) (3 cr.) CASE A&H Examines—but is not limited to—such nonfiction genres as the personal or political essay, science writing, journalism exposé, history, biography, film criticism, memoir, travel and speech writing. The instructor may focus on a particular genre or period.
- ENG–L 363 American Drama (3 cr.) CASE A&H Main currents in American drama to the present.
- ENG–L 364 Native American Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H, CASE DUS Surveys traditional and modern literature by American Indians, especially of the high plains and southwest culture areas, with particular attention to the image of the Indian in both native and white literature.
- ENG–L 365 Modern Drama: Continental (3 cr.) CASE A&H Special attention to Ibsen, Strindberg, Chekhov, Pirandello, Brecht, Beckett, and the theater of the absurd.
- ENG–L 366 Modern Drama: English, Irish, American, and Post-Colonial (3 cr.) CASE A&H Shaw, Synge, O’Neill, and other significant dramatists, such as Harold Pinter, Edward Albee, August Wilson, Athol Fugard, and Wole Soyinka.
- ENG–L 367 Literature of the Bible (3 cr.) CASE A&H Hebrew Bible and New Testament with emphasis on questions of reading and interpretation.
- ENG–L 369 Studies in British and American Authors (3 cr.) CASE A&H Studies in single authors (such as Wordsworth and Melville), groups of authors (such as minority writers), and periods (such as American writers of the 1920s). Topics vary from semester to semester. May be repeated with a different topic for a maximum of 6 credit hours.
- ENG–L 371 Critical Practices (3 cr.) CASE A&H P: L202 with grade of C– or higher. Study of and practice in using contemporary critical methodologies; can be focused on specific topics.
- ENG–L 373 Interdisciplinary Approaches to English and American Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Social, political, and psychological studies in English and American literature, 1890 to the present. Topics may vary and include, for example, Freud and literature, responses to revolution, and the literature of technology.
- ENG–L 374 Ethnic American Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H, CASE DUS Literature about the American ethnic experience, selected from works by African American, Native American, Asian American, Chicano/a or Latino/a American, Jewish American, Italian American, Irish American, Arab American, and/or other ethnic American authors.
- ENG–L 375 Studies in Jewish Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H, CASE DUS Jewish authors, such as I. B. Singer and Elie Wiesel; groups of authors, such as Holocaust writers and writers about the immigrant experience; or genres and themes. Topic will vary from semester to semester.
- ENG–L 378 Studies in Women and Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H British and American authors such as George Eliot, Gertrude Stein; groups of authors, such as the Brontë sisters, recent women poets; or genres and modes, such as autobiography, film, and criticism. Topics will vary from semester to semester.
- ENG–L 380 Literary Modernism (3 cr.) CASE A&H Phenomenon of modernism in early twentieth-century transatlantic literature, with emphasis on such writers as Joyce, Pound, Eliot, Stein, Lawrence, and Faulkner, studied in relation to social and artistic movements.
- ENG–L 381 Recent Writing (3 cr.) CASE A&H Selected writers of contemporary significance. May include groups and movements (such as black writers, poets of projective verse, new regionalists, parajournalists and other experimenters in pop literature, folk writers, and distinctly ethnic writers); several recent novelists, poets, or critics; or any combination of groups. May be repeated once for credit by special arrangement with the Department of English.
- ENG–L 383 Studies in British or Commonwealth Culture (3 cr.) CASE A&H Study of a coherent period of British or Commonwealth culture (such as medieval, Elizabethan, or Victorian England, or modern Canada), with attention to the relations between literature, the other arts, and the intellectual milieu.
- ENG–L 384 Studies in American Culture (3 cr.) CASE A&H Study of a coherent period of American culture (such as the Revolution, the Progressive Era, the Great Depression), with attention to the relations between literature, the other arts, and the intellectual milieu.
- ENG–L 389 Feminist Literary and Cultural Criticism (3 cr.) CASE A&H Selected critical approaches to the issue of gender over time and in various cultural settings. Topics vary, but may include feminist criticism and popular culture, the history of feminist expository prose, or deconstructionism and feminism.
- ENG–L 390 Children’s Literature (3 cr.) CASE A&H Historical and modern children’s books and selections from books; designed to assist future teachers, parents, librarians, or others in selecting the best in children’s literature for each period of the child’s life.
- ENG–L 391 Literature for Young Adults (3 cr.) CASE A&H Study of books suitable for junior high and high school classroom use. Special stress on works of fiction dealing with contemporary problems, but also including modern classics, biography, science fiction, and other areas of interest to teenage readers.
- ENG–L 395 British and American Film Studies (3 cr.) CASE A&H Intensive study of specific topics related to film narratives; emphasis on American or British film as a cultural phenomenon. Topic varies.
- ENG–L 396 Studies in African American Literature and Culture (3 cr.) CASE A&H, CASE DUS Study of a coherent phenomenon of African American literature and culture (such as Harlem Renaissance, the Black Arts Movement, African American women’s autobiographies, black popular culture and literary expression, recent black fiction or poetry, or a cluster of major authors).
- ENG–Y 398 Professional Practice in English (1–6 cr.) P: Major standing, 12 credit hours in English at 200 level or above, including L202, good academic standing, approval of Department of English. (S/F grading) Supervised, career-related work experience in cooperating institution, agency, or business. Evaluation by employer and Department of English. Does not count toward distribution or English major requirements. May be repeated for a maximum of 6 credits.
- ENG–L 399 Junior Seminar (3 cr.) P: L202. Small seminar on various topics, encouraging independent thinking and research methods. May be repeated with a different topic for a maximum of 6 credit hours.
- ENG–L 450 Seminar: British and American Authors (3 cr.) Intensive study of a major author or a school of closely related authors.
- ENG–L 460 Seminar: Literary Form, Mode, and Theme (3 cr.) Study of texts written in several historical periods united by a common mode or form (narrative, romanticism, lyric, etc.), or by a common theme (Bildungsroman, the city and the country, the two cultures question, the uses of literacy, etc.).
- ENG–L 470 Seminar: Literature and Interdisciplinary Studies (3 cr.) Study of a body of English or American literature in relation to another discipline (philosophy, art history, linguistics, psychology, etc.), or in light of critical theory (structuralist, psychoanalytic, genre theory, etc.).
- ENG–L 480 Seminar: Literature and History (3 cr.) Study of a body of literature in relation to a period of history, to a theory of history, or to a historical theme.
- ENG–L 495 Individual Reading in English (1–3 cr.) P: Consent of instructor and departmental director of undergraduate studies. May be repeated once for a maximum of 6 credit hours.
- ENG–L 498 Internship in English (1–3 cr.) P: Major standing, minimum GPA of 3.000, 12 credit hours in English at 200 level or above (including L202), prior arrangement with faculty member or editor. (S/F grading) Supervised experience in teaching undergraduate English course or in editing departmentally based journal or allied publication. May be repeated once for a maximum of 6 credit hours; only 3 credit hours may count toward the major.
- ENG–L 499 Senior Independent Study for Honors Students (2 cr.) P: Approval of department’s Honors Director. May be repeated once for credit.
Composition
Students who earn credit in W131, W143, or W170 may not receive or retain Indiana University special credit in composition.